Cda Autobiography Essay

My name is _______. I was born in Miami, Florida on September __, 1994. I was born into a large family with 5 older sisters and 2 younger as well. A few years ago I was graced with a niece, named __________; she has become the joy of my life. Most of my time, aside from working and school, is spent with her. Both of my parents were born _______, whereas my sisters and I were all born here in Miami. There’s a great dissimilarity in the way that things are done in______ and the way things are done here. The differences have brought a love and interest in all the diverse cultures of the world. As a child I always loved my teachers. They always found a way to make learning fun and exciting. I knew I wanted to work with kids when I got older and help them find learning just as fun and exciting as I did. Everyday I’d come home from school and teach what I’ve learned to my younger siblings using the same methods my teachers used. They began finding learning just as enjoyable as I’d hoped. From then on I was inspired to be part of the life changing team of childcare workers and instill the thoughts that learning is fun in young children today. I have lots of goals for a future in ECE. A projection of my short-term goals in ECE includes becoming a Child Development Associate. I feel that it would be an honor to be an educator to young children and introduce some of the behaviors that they will carry with them their entire life long. Some of my long-term goals include owning my own childcare center or becoming a pediatrician.

First deserve then desire Essay

First deserve then desire is a well-known English saying which shows how the way to glory and success can be paved by having certain abilities and capabilities. It is a fact that a man can’t get what he wants just by day-dreaming and building castles in the air. For his lofty ideals and goals, a man has to put his abilities into practice and strive to go extra mile to realize his cherished dreams. A life spent mere by words and not by productive deeds is worthless and such a person may have many desires, wishes and ambitions but he can’t realize his dreams into reality simply because he does not toil to realize his ambitions into reality and does not deserve the glory and success attached to his ambitions. History bears ample witness to the fact that all the great men who left a deep mark and influence on the world were men of actions. They practically did what they said and meant. In other words, they deserved the status they got through their untiring efforts and struggles. It is said that genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. If we go through the pages of history, it will be found that all the great men worked extremely hard to translate their ideals into reality. It would be pertinent to mention here the examples of some great men who truly deserved the status and honour the world accorded to them. To begin with, Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), who was 16th President of the United States, was born to a poor farmer. He toiled extremely hard to deserve this status. He faced many ups and downs in his life. He played a key role in preserving the unity of America during its bloody civil war and ended slavery. He modernized and developed America. Sir Winston Churchill (1874-1965) who was the Prime Minister of Great Britain during the second World War, could not pass the entrance examination to Harrow Public School when he was barely ten or eleven years old. He disliked the exams as most of the students tend to dislike exams. But, soon, he developed passion for education and utilized his potential to become a great

Is Helmut Newton’s Photography Artistic or Pornographic? Essay

Abstract Photography is a very interesting media to convey messages, feelings and opinions, and leaves a wide range of styles and methods how to do so. The photographer Helmut Newton developed a way to show his own imagination of reality and express his feelings, which is criticised by many people, for as some do not see the art in his work. They rather accuse it to be pornographic. By looking at the development of his work over time and the true meaning of his pictures, the legal side of publishing these pictures and the reproaches of his so called greatest enemy, the feminist Alice Schwarzer, I tried to show how the question whether Helmut Newton’s work is artistic or pornographic is related to a created war between sexes, the battle between Newton and Schwarzer. Whilst there are many books about photography, I only could find a few information about Newton’s work, mainly taken from his own autobiography, for as public places, such as libraries did not had any material. I guess this is because of the context of his work. Nudity does not seem to be at its right place in a public library. However, I was willing to research Newton’s work in detail at first hand, when I for example went to one of his exhibitions. But this all just showed me how interesting this topic is. For as I only see the artistic material in his work, others totally exclude it from the art-section. This seemed to be a matter of opinion, a matter of choice. My conclusion therefore is based on the fact, that people have their own right to decide what is pornographic, without being influenced by others. (283) Background Information Helmut Newton was born on Sunday, 13. October 1920 in Schoeneberg, Berlin as a son of a wealthy button manufacturer. His father enrolled him in the American School of Berlin, but he was expelled because he chose to dream about photography, swimming, and girls instead of completing his schoolwork. Later on in 1936, Newton started working on his career as a photographer and became an apprentice at the studio of the famous and well known Berlin photographer Yva, whose real name is Elsie Simon. He completed his placement after two years. Because of the great pressure of the National Socialists on the Jewish society, he left Germany in 1938 to go to Singapore, where he accepts a position as a photojournalist for the Singapore Straits Times. However, he was fired two weeks later due to incompetence.1 After spending a couple of years in Singapore without work, trying to â€Å"sleep himself† through life, he lost any professional ambition. He had indifferent opinions about photography . In 1940, being only 20 years old, he got carried off to an Australian internment camp. As there was a change of government, he left the camp and after he was discharged from the army, Newton first changed his name from â€Å"Helmut Neustaedter† into â€Å"Helmut Newton† and then opened a small photography studio in Melbourne. In 1948, Newton married the actress June Brunell, which started in 1970 her own photography career under the name of Alice Springs. Newton began contributing fashion photos to French Vogue in 1961 and continued to do so for twenty-five years. During this time, he also was a regular fashion contributor to Linea Italiana, Queen, Nova, Jardin des Modes, Marie-Claire, Elle, and American, Italian and German Vogue. Introduction Helmut Newton recently had an exhibition in the NRW-Forum, Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½sseldorf, Germany to celebrate his eightieth birthday. It was called Helmut Newton-Work and it included his 200 favourite pictures from the three most important areas – fashion, nudes and portraits- from his last forty years of work, but arranged by his wife, June Brunell, who is said to have a major impact on Newton’s photography. As his work has fascinated me over several years and I had shown great interest in this photographer from the moment I first saw his work, for me the pictures presented in the exhibition were unbelievable fascinating and they held my attention for ages. I looked at every detail and interpreted them and made up my own little stories, to find out what lies behind these pictures. They really impressed me and inspired me, giving me lots of ideas I would like to try out in photography myself. Photography is a great method to mediate and convey messages, ideas and emotions. For as I know that to give a photo the right expression you have to be talented and skilled, I can say that Helmut Newton is one of the most talented photographer, as he creates such an extensive and controversial work. However, I should add that, from what I have read of Helmut Newton himself, I am disgusted by him, his character and his beliefs, but this does not change my opinion about his work as I am still fascinated by his pictures. I am thrilled of the way he uses his surrounding to create this famous and special atmosphere in his pictures and often caught myself wishing to be set into pose by him one time. People’s opinions however, tend to be different when it comes to Newton’s work. Some people, mainly women, feel offended by his pictures or at least are not happy about the idea Newton uses to mediate his massages. I went to the exhibition with my mum and afterwards we both argued about which of these pictures should be allowed to be published and which should not, and we certainly did not come to an agreement where the line is, that should not be crossed. â€Å"The phenomenon Newton would be not conceivable without the women’s movement.† (Bild) The women’s movement has developed and grown during the period of Helmut Newton’s career. Now feminist criticism is established in universities, in parts of the media, and in the minds of many people in everyday life. Whilst I really enjoy Helmut Newton’s work I am aware of feminist criticism of it. Many of them title his work as voyeuristic and pornographic. It is in the context of these ideas and theories that I need to work out my own thoughts. â€Å"This woman cannot run away, not even before Newton’s fantasies.†2 (Alice Schwarzer) There have been many writers and commentators on Helmut Newton’s work, but I have decided to focus on the writing of Alice Schwarzer, whose words are quoted above. For me, these anti-Newton writings represent the best known and most extreme reaction against the photographer’s work, especially in Germany. Is Helmut Newton’s photography artistic or pornographic? This is my research question. My hypothesis and thesis and argument is that Helmut Newton’s work is not pornographic. My belief is that the answer to this question lies with each individual. Therefore, I will argue that the photographs are not pornographic for me. However, Alice Schwarzer made it very clear, that they are indeed pornographic to her, and it is also clear that she would like to persuade me and all her other readers to take the same view. For me, I am not interested in trying to persuade others what to think, but simply, in exploring my own responses to the work. In this way, I feel that I am close to Helmut Newton’s own point of view in that his art is made for himself. Main Body / Development Pictures can influence the perception of the true reality better and more effective than words. This concept was already followed by the Old Testament picture prohibition, which consists of the commandment â€Å"Thy shall not make for yourself an idol3†. However, this did not mean, that there was no allowance for art, as the religious started to use symbols (such as the white dove symbolises the Holly Spirit) to make their point. Pictures transport messages and raise emotions. And in our modern media society the dependence of simple visual perception and its power increases. The actual meaning of a picture, however lies rather in what kind of different details in the photo cause different feelings in our selves than just its outer look. That is why the meaning and the emotional message is dependent on the person who is looking at the picture, as the personal perception and the experience of life play a major role in deciding what we observe as reality. This person then may decide, whether the artwork he or she is looking at is artistic or not. Deciding on whether something is artistic, we first have to define the word art. Although today there is no universally accepted definition of art4, I would define art as an imitation of reality and an expression of what the artist feels. An artistic arrangement, design etc. therefore looks attractive and has been done with skill and imagination.5 Our interest in art involves aesthetic evaluation, which might be positive or negative. Not just the viewers but also certain artists have different opinions of what is beautiful and artistic and how it should be expressed. Although Newton does not want to be seen as an artist (â€Å"this fine-art crap is killing photography, in my vocabulary, art is a dirty word.†6), looking at my definition of art and his statement â€Å"I use what God gives me, but arrange the world the way I like it.†7 would prove him wrong, as God gives the reality and Newton’s feelings arrange his own world. It is said that an artist develops his own style through a creative reputation. For the artist therefore a sure measurement of achievement is, when the work produced continues to stay in our minds even a long time after we first got into contact with the works surface charms. There are many people, that see these surface charms as a barrier from looking deeper into Newton’s photographs. For them, his pictures still cause accusations of sexual voyeurism. In today’s life, nude pictures involving any kind of human being whether black or white, young or old, stand in the shadow of political and moral disapproval it could never hope to support. But why criticising and abusing Newton’s work as voyeurism, if it is said that distance generates mystery and enchantment?8 Though it is not just Newton’s own work that bashes people, but more or less his influence, the influence on the viewer, the outside, the society. Newton is said to be one of the best fashion photographers of his time. He often surprises us with work that goes far beyond what an magazine editor would require. It all began in Paris in 1961, when he started his career at the French Vogue. It is a well known fashion magazine for women, that often shows the way women are looked at. A few years later, the simple fashion photos became more taboo-braking as he used implications of bestiality9. One example of this is the series he produced in the American Vogue in 1975. There, women with metal chains were presented in leather cloths, the reputation of fashion being clean and light was destroyed by a single picture series showing dirt and dark colours on the skinny bodies of the female models. Although the women were so powerful illustrated, they had a sense of submissiveness to the viewer. These pictures were telling a story; a story that was different from mind to mind. It was different to what people were used to. This was not just fashion photography anymore. It was new and it was created by Newton. Fashion photography started in the early 20th century and is said to create an image of the society, reflecting the reality and creating an important role that women play in it. It is used to sell the product that it displays, using the agency of temptation and the desire they inspire. From the start, fashion photography had close similarities with portraiture and it was not clear, where the dividing line between these two categories laid. But as no other photographer did, Newton succeeds in overshooting these lines between fashion and portraiture, combining it with nudity and nearly dissolve these lines, so that there is no clear difference anymore. It is not simple to classify a picture of Newton’s to a particular genre, as it often happens that a fashion photo is nude, a nude is fashion and also portrait at the same time. It seems like Newton really enjoys playing with these genres, making it not clear to the viewer which one it belongs to. These created images constantly e voke contradictions. Real and artificial, feminine and masculine, subject and object, nude and dressed, are just some of them. (PICTURES) Women that are once dressed and then undressed again, in the same situations and poses, great, large images of nude women executed in series (such as the â€Å"Big Nudes†, â€Å"Naked and Dressed†, â€Å"Domestic Nudes†) – he developed an infinitive repertoire. Infinitive are also the different poses and situations the models are shown. No other photographer has ever shown the female body in so many different ways, though with the help of unusual material, leaving many imaginary situations, desires and stories, which do all evoke and express his life (and ours) in a miraculous way. This is not typical and certainly not required in fashion photography, however, it is what makes Newton’s work so unique over the past time and compared to other artists work. Therefore we can say, that Newton has always been much more than a fashion photographer not only, because he created this own unique style but also because he insists that concept is more important than cloths.10 He became one of the most famous star photographers in every way. Politician, actors, artist – everyone wants to be set into pose by the master of the oppressive fantasy. He portrayed people from every kind of political and aesthetic matter: Helmut Kohl in front of the German oak, Gerhard Schroeder in front of a brick wall, Andy Warhol in bed and Anthony Hopkins with an evil but mystical look. For me all these different pictures show that he is definitely a figurative artist who has the skill of using the medium of photography to create a unique imaginative world. (PICTURES) A remarkable change to the view of fashion photography happened in the years between the sixties and eighties. In this decade years of extreme creativity and productivity were created and it was during these years that the unique originality of Helmut Newton’s vision took shape, that is to always try to find a new concept of beauty. In his tending to be aggressive and provocative photos, Newton reached the point where he displayed the difference between the sexes to such an extent that many parts of the society, mainly feminists, titled him with the presumption of misogyny and grouped together to make a clear stand against him. Although Newton always tried to imagine and visualise women exactly as they are. He seems to be interested especially in presenting those women that are not following but leading themselves, women, that desire and love whomever and whenever they like, most important in whatever way they like. He shows women that have command upon their own bodies and ar e free and willing to present them in this powerful way, that he is most famous for, women who are both responsible and willing.11 Newton insists on the question: â€Å"How do we see the women?† Definitively, he has already left his answer for the world. The phenomena Newton would also not be considerable without the women’s liberation. Looking at Newton’s work from the beginning, one can see that parallel to his development of photography in the past forty years, the women rights and therefore their self-confidence has also changed. Women became more self-confident and independent and claim their rights of their own body. This development is visible in the art work of Newton. Whereas the women in Newton’s photos from the 70s and the beginning of the 80s look less confident with their eyes slightly to the floor looking bashful into the camera, the women of the 80s and 90s radiate self-confidence. A development that Newton could not influence. Looking at that perspective, one could see Newton’s work as a mirror of our time, reflecting the past and the history. (PICTURES) Accused of treating them like objects, called misogynous, porno-chic or perverted, the photographer has never been afraid of crossing the frontiers between moral and aesthetic and in his way, reinvent concepts such as the feminine, eroticism, sexuality and power. Ironically, it is the feminine side, that accuses and dislikes Newton and his work the most, although it is him who seems to command and admire women to a great extend, just as he wants the viewer to admire and love them. The war between the sexes (PICTURES) One woman became very famous because she raised her voice against this man, that uses the power of popularity and might to present his fantasy, feelings and thoughts in a way that no one else has done before, using the female body to illustrate all sorts of situations. Here, we are talking about a war between the sexes, a war that has not found an end yet. It is an continues back and forth in propaganda and cross propaganda between the most famous photographer, Helmut Newton, and the most famous German feminist Alice Schwarzer. It is she who accuses him of supplying propaganda material to this war of sexes, giving higher doses year after year. Alice Schwarzer was born in1942 in Wuppertal, Germany. She lived with her grandparents, who took great care of her. It is said that she had the best relationship with her granddad, that she had ever had with a man. In 1970 she became a member of the Paris women’s liberation (Mouvement de Liberation des femmes, MLF). After she moved back from France to Gerany, she then became a liberal author until the 26.January 1977 were she found EMMA. EMMA is a bi-monthly magazine that comes out the last Thursday of every even month. It is available in every German-speaking country at large news-stands. Read by about 120.000 people EMMA is the only magazine for women published by women in Europe. Until now, Schwarzer is still its editor-in-chief and publisher. She has written many books and articles, where she mentioned the work of Helmut Newton, where she asked other women to stand up for the women’s right and especially, to stand against this so-called voyeuristic photographer, Helmut Newton. One article is directly written about Newton’s work. It was published in EMMA 6/1993 and also in Schwarzer’s book â€Å"Alice in the men’s world – an interim balance†12. In this article, Alice Schwarzer definitely makes her point and opinion clear. There is no sympathy to Newton, no admiration, not a single positive statement. She lists every point that she can mention in a negative way and finds interesting methods to relate his voyeuristic, sadistic and pornographic work to Newton’s past. It happens in her article, that she draws the readers attention to the fact, that Helmut Newton is descended from a Jewish family and that his first photography teacher, the by him admired and famous Yva (whose rea l name was Else Simon), was later murdered in Ausschwitz. She relates this fact to his alleged sadistic and black fantasy and is shocked that any respect and honour and pride is missing to what has happened to the Jews in the second world war. She says that his fantasy world is full of offenders in uniform or pinstripes and victims, that have the meaningful expression of being strong. Tall, blond girls, shiny black slaves and greedy mistress, that wait for their masters to get broken down. Basically she is not wrong in saying this as he indeed said in his autobiography, that he was fascinated by the domina and prostitutes and the dark atmosphere that surrounds them at the time he was living in London (1957). But Schwarzer does not only want to explain what sort of women, in her opinion, Newton presents, but she wants to build a connection between his passion for cruel, dominating but beautiful women and his past, the fact that he is Jewish and grew up in a time where pictures were made to produce propaganda. Hitler used posters and pictures to show the Germans whom they shall like and whom they should not pointing at the Jews and declaring them as bad. These pictures showed Jewish people, looking like criminals, explaining the German nation that this is how the people look like that can be ridiculed, carried off and killed. This equation forms a courageous thesis. But, however, you can feel her anti-sympathy for Newton, as she is stunned about the phantasm Newton publishes, where no picture is the product of a better one, only showing the tortured view in the own chasm13. She has the opinion, that Newton’s pictures do not disturb but confirm the existing relations in a world of violence, war and torture. Newton’s pictures are comparable with the fantasy of men and the awe with which the male imagination regards all women. He shows the insecure men a strong, powerful and demanding woman, and these pictures do not ask â€Å"productive questions† but give straight answe rs to the modern society – therefore they are pure pornography (Schwarzer). Pornography, that is what Schwarzer sees in Newton’s work. Pictures, that are made by humans of humans, have an effect of their social and psychological reality – where it does not matter whether it is a pornographic, racist or anti-Semitic picture.14 According to the law, however, representations are only pornographic, if they cause sexual state of arousal to the viewer and at the same time go beyond the agreed limits of the social values to the sexual sense of decency.15 This would mean, that this paragraph serves to the general feeling for decency but not for the safety of the women’s dignity. A point that makes Schwarzer despair. Over and over again she makes that clear. But not only through words, speeches, written articles and books, but also through legal movements she raises her voice to emphasise the importance of this topic. In 1978, Alice Schwarzer sued the German magazine Stern for offence against à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½823 BGB16, that says â€Å"Who offends intentionally or negligently the life, body, health, freedom, ownership or any other right of another in any way, is obligated to compensate the victim for the arised damage†. It was simply the publication of some of Newton’s pictures, (In July 1977 the Stern published a picture showing a naked female backside placed on a bike’s saddle; in March 1978 a naked woman on the beach, covered with sand on the decisive parts of the body; and in April 1978 it was the publication of a picture showing a black female, naked, holding a microphone in her hand, however, being tied up in heavy, metal chains) that caused Schwarzer and many other women to go to court and to sue the Stern. The statement of claim of Schwarzer’s side said, that not only the way and manner of the presentation, but also the summery shows that there is a simple system behind it: The representation of women as an instrument of power. Schwarzer had the opinion she had deciphered a global, male conspiracy, based on a â€Å"gentlemen’s agreement† not to see women as actors but as objects of male controlled art. She also accused Newton to be the leader of this egoistic and little-caring male party, for as not many are as talented and as cold at the same time as he is. However, Schwarzer lost the conflict. The judge saw no conclusive element in Schwarzer’s allegation, more or less because the plaintiffs could not be in force of the personal violation of own law. Women as a group are not able to be collectively insulted, so the judge. The plaintiffs should present their concern to the legislator, as he went on. And that is what she followed the next few years. Her aim is to gain a law against the production, spreading and possession of pornography. In other words: The censorship of Pornography. She demands more rights for women, the right for women to stand up against the pornographic representation of women by artists such as Newton, to stand up for the dignity of (wo-)men with all strengths, because pornography is the propaganda for the degradation of women and has nothing to do with morality (Schwarzer). Following that concept, at the end of the 1987, EMMA got the Anti-Porn-Campaign started under the name PorNO, led by Alice Schwarzer. Being a representative of this campaign means you have to agree with Mrs Schwarzer’s opinion that pornography does support the violence on women and children, as pornography displays women in a humiliated position or rather as pornography is the humiliated act against women. It gives a picture of women that are human beings of second rank, born to be victims, just good enough to be used, taken, raped, and tortured. According to EMMA17, pornographic pictures and movies give rise to the pressure and constraint for women to give themselves away to this humiliation. But the actual centre of the campaign against pornography lies in the argument that â€Å"Pornography causes violence†. And it is so much more than just the expression of the brutality as a whole. To strengthen her thesis, Schwarzer always follows the same pattern when writing her articles. Although still seen morally wrong, women who show their body for published pictures or sell sex are still allowed to continue their trade. Schwarzer asks the women why this has been allowed to continue and gives a straight and simple answer: men. Conclusion Is Helmut Newton’s photography artistic or pornographic? Working on this research question whilst looking at the developed war between Newton and the feminist Schwarzer was really interesting and had taught me many things I had not known before. I have to say it was difficult criticising Newton’s work from the perspective of Schwarzer, as I do not share her opinion. Studying the feminist view on Newton’s work did not hold me away from the belief that his work is fantastic and by all means artistic indeed. Though I do understand what causes Schwarzer’s anxiety, I still do not agree with how she tries to persuade others to acquire her opinion and do not see any value in her argument. However, I respect her opinion for as my belief is, that every individual has to decide on his or her own whether Newton’s work is artistic or pornographic. Art is just the presentation of the visions and fantasies, emotions and thoughts of an artist and should not be doubt by outstanding people, for as I think that Newton only shows the forbidden desire, no one else dares to talk about, whether male or female but still captures in his/her mind. â€Å"I use what God gives me, but arrange the world the way I like it.†18 (Helmut Newton) Appendix The following pictures are added for the reader of this written piece to decide for his or her own whether Helmut Newton’s photography is pornographic or artistic. (PICTURES) Bibliography * Helmut Newton, Autobiographie, 2002, Bertelsmann Verlag * Helmut Newton – Work, Taschen * John L. Tomkinson, The Enterprise of Knowledge, 1999, Leader Books S.A. Publications * Longman Dictionary of contemponary English, Third Edition * Alice Schwarzer, Alice im Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nnerland – eine Zwischenbilanz, 2002, Kiepenheuer&Witsch * EMMA: 1. EMMA 12/1987 2. EMMA Sonderband 5 3. EMMA 06/1993 4. EMMA 07/1978 * World Wide Web: 1. http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm 2. http://www.uol.com.br/modabrasil/london_link/english/helmut 3. http://www.aliceschwarzer.de/content/c1052749630440.html 4. http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm 5. http://www.freitag.de/2000/49/00491501.htm 6. http://www.aliceschwarzer.de/textevon/kernthema_4,html Pictures taken from various websites, but mainly from the google-picture-gallery. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the help and support of the following people: John Rolfe – for his great help in supervising and supporting me during my study Max van Sambeck – for his information about the legal rights EMMA – for giving me some information about their work and about Alice Schwarzer Regina von Kempis-Kà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ster – my mom, for travelling to Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½sseldorf with me to see Helmut Newton’s exhibition Helmut Newton-work 1 http://www.temple.edu/photo/photographers/spring03/photographers/heatherprice/newton/biography.html 2 http://www,aliceschwarzer.de/content/c1052749630440.html 3 Bible, Exodus 20,4 4 John L. Tomkinson, The Enterprise Of Knowledge 5 Longman Dictionary of contemponary English 6 http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm 7 http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm 8 Helmut Newton, Autobiografie 9 http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm 10 www.uol.com.br/modabrasil/london_link/english/helmut 11 Helmut Newton – Work, Taschen 12 = â€Å"Alice im Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nnerland – eine Zwischenbilanz† (Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2002) 13 â€Å"Alice im Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nnerland – eine Zwischenbilanz† (Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2002) 14 Alice Schwarzer, EMMA 12/1987 15 German law, $184 StGB Strafrechtliches Gesetzbuch (=Criminal/Penal Civil Code) 16 German law, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½823 Bà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rgerliches Gesetzbuch (=Civil Code) 17 EMMA Sonderband 5, page 6f 18 http://www.rpadel.dircon.co.uk/rp_helmut_newton.htm Show preview only

Psychology essay - human motivation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Psychology - human motivation - Essay Example That is why; fear, positively, lead people to undertake challenges, to create order from chaos, to regulate their drives, or to become involved in interesting activities. For instance, if a man feels anxious to drive in a freeway, he could be compelled to conquer his fear by practicing freeway driving. Meanwhile on a negative note, the fear that the same man felt could motivate the non-self-determined behavior of yelling obscenities at someone who drove up beside him unexpectedly. In contrast to external motivation factors such as the use of food as a reward, fear, as with other intrinsic motivation factors, there are no rewards separate from the internal, spontaneous states that accompany or immediately follow the behavior. Here the â€Å"reward† is intangible because it takes the form of a certain set of feelings. Finally, the role of fear in motivation is best illustrated in the way behavior reinforces the responses that terminates fear. This analogy, which was set forth by Roderick Wong, is said to explain the incidence of compulsions in human behavior. According to Wong, â€Å"such behavior is assumed to be motivated by fear, and maintained by fear reduction.† (p. 192) 2. The theory that learning has something to do with human motivation falls in the realm of behaviorist approach, which argues that motivation is a result of factors generated by the environment more than arising within an individual. Here, a person’s current actions are determined by the successes or failures of past actions. To cite an example: My motivation to attend musicals is determined by the fact that my first and succeeding outings to the theater were pleasurable and it did reduce my stress, therefore the increasing frequency of my attendance to musicals was reinforced. Socialization hence is very important in learning as these provides a good amount of experiences – both good and

Media policy in Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Media policy in Europe - Essay Example During the war in Rome, it got affected by monetary crisis that led by the war led to hoarding of money, by the idle money being taken out of circulation, which caused price deflation in commodities as well as land values. Repayment of Rome loans from Asia got threatened thus causing creditors in Rome to experience a liquidity crisis as well as, trouble in repaying their loans while others were bankrupt. Basing on the acknowledged advantages of society, opinionated also cultural pluralism, multiplicity, as well as, variety in the media can be the enviable trimmings in themselves. Hardt and Antonio (2002) states that the constitutive imprecision of pluralism as a communal assessment that provides a suitable ideological suppleness in a manner that it is capable of suggestive of intransigent issues in one phase of the contest also progressive issues in the subsequent issue. Correspondingly, in the media policy the affirmative significance of pluralism together with the diversity that ha s been subjugated in point of view for variety, as well as, unsuited agendas serves at no cost contest to the public check obligations (Kofman & Gillian, 2003). The definitional along with the discursive authority flocks around the borders of opinionated debates, and also portray in the techniques of the media guiding principle in the European Union. At the same time, as the European congress time after time try to uphold the agenda of media pluralism towards the commission’s ideas to plan on a political, as well as, the cultural definitions being repeated due to the failure of the industry groups and the commission. Media union has been established to become a broad technology that involves internet; this has been intermingled with the old media such as television. This technological development transcends to the societal, intellectual, financial, as well as, industrial reforms. This union only occurs in numerous channels; nevertheless the most important idea is based on the union of the types of media knowledge in the public furthermore within the media industry surroundings (Mann 1970). Commonly, the thought of a fresh media an example being computers disagreeing with the old media an example being a television, as well as, a print media. Away from each other, the technical union and the study examine the manner audiences may be associated and understand some of these technologies. This type of union is defined as the cultural associations contained by the media (Maloutas & Pantelidou 2004). One may identify the four scopes by which media techniques in Europe can be compared through the formulation of media markets, amid exacting prominence on the powerful or even non powerful formulation of an accumulation distribution force down. The opinionated exactness within three scales, as well as, the personality of the relations between media associated with political parties or even more widely to the extent to which the media system portrays the fundament al political separations in society culture. The establishment and formulation of journalistic expertise, degree, as well as, the nature of the governing interaction in the media system (Sarikakis 2004). The dissimilarity in newspaper readership between the Northern and Southern Europe may be recognized, it is possible to associate these dissimilarities to the pop up of the emergence of

Operations Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Operations Management - Essay Example They don't just negotiate, but they also look at the vendor's commitment to supply quality goods. Once satisfied, a new business relationship is formed. After procuring the goods, Wal-Mart will stock the items in different distribution centers scattered in different locations. Barcode technology and hand-held computers were adopted that allows the company to manage a consistent flow of supply. The barcodes will serve as an identification tag of a certain product, while the hand-held computers will serve as the locator of an exact product being monitored (Chandran, 2003). 2.2 Logistics Outstanding transportation system of Wal-Mart makes the delivery of supplies from distribution centers to respective store outlets fast and reliable. The company would only hire experienced drivers who have good records in traffic rules. Also, all drivers will be monitored using the "Private Fleet Driver Handbook" that serves as a manual for all terms and conditions of delivery, code of conduct and othe r activities. On the other hand, Wal-Mart also adopted the 'cross-docking' logistics technique in which it reduces the handling and storage of finished goods at the distribution centers by directly delivering it to the customers after being manufactured (Chandran, 2003).

Global economic environment &marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Global economic environment &marketing - Essay Example Secondly, the fact that there was emphasis on the achievement of fairness rather than focusing of liberalization of trade also resulted in disagreement among member states. The fact that certain nations had bargaining power over others and this power was being shifted to other member countries caused a rift between members. Some of these issues reflect on the case study. For instance, one of the guidelines of the organisation was fairness. However, countries usually want to maintain the bargaining power over others irrespective of the fact that globalization has resulted in change and new markets where countries which were not major players in the past are currently significant players in the market. 4.2 In the international market, free trade cannot be fair. This is as a result of the fact that each country wants to protect its indigenous business establishment thus governments end up providing an added advantage over other business organisations in the international market (Salvato re, 2012. For instance, countries such as the United States of America are known to offer subsidies to farmers in order to give them an upper hand in the import and export sector. Question Five 5.1 Various a factors contributed to the economic crisis in Thailand to spread to other south East Asia countries making it a contagion. One of the major factors that contributed to this is that most of the respective governments in the region did not deal with the increasing balance of benefits in turkey, overheating pressures the stock market and property bubbles early enough. The fact that pegged / fixed exchange rates went on for too long was also a major contributor since it resulted in a false sense of stability that encouraged firms in the region to lend huge sums of money to those in Thailand. Finally, the fact that financial markets in the region were not regulated and supervised at the time was also major contributor 5.2 Countries in the region would have been able to prevent such a crisis if they implemented certain policies. Firstly, more supervision and regulation would have helped in ensuring that balance deficits that were present would not have risen to that level (Jackson, 1999). Secondly, countries in the region should have come up with measures that would ensure that stock market and property bubbles could be withstood since they would have been forecasted. Finally, the region would have adopted exchange rates that were not fixed. They would allow the exchange rate of currencies in the region to be determined by the forces of demand and supply. This would have helped greatly since a fall in the Thai baht would indicate something was wrong. Report Introduction There are various indicators that are used to determine the economic position in which a country or a region is in. Such indicators are instrumental in policy and decision making especially for business establishments that operate internationally. Such companies are able to determine if their bus iness ventures will be successful by evaluating indicators such as GDP. This part of the paper will focus on how different indicators have affected particular regions and how they are interpreted by an organisation Gross domestic product (GDP) is an indicator in macroeconomics that is used to measure the economic state of a country. It is the value of all goods and services recognised officially produced within a specific country in a stipulated period. In general, it is used to determine

Finance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Finance - Assignment Example This affects the interest rates. An interest rate is at the very basic the cost money. It’s how much you pay to receive money and how much you earn to sell money. Banks basically help determine the interest rate. While each bank may offer different interest rates to customers, the basic rate or the discount rate is determined by the Central Bank (Mathieu, 1995, p. 64). This is the rate at which the central bank lends to all other banks. And the central bank sets this rate by considering factors such as the demand and supply of money, interest rates, exchange rates, balance of payments and the growth rate. The financial sectors set the interest rate which affects the exchange rate of a currency. A high interest rate means that the currency essentially â€Å"costs† more. It also means that if foreign investors put their money in local accounts they will get higher returns. This is known as hot money inflow. As more investors buy the local currency, the currency appreciates. While high interest rates lead to hot money inflows it also means that the country’s exports are now more expensive for foreigners. This means that if previously an American had to pay $1 for PKR 80, now they might have to pay $80/70 since $1 is now equal to PKR 70 and not PKR 80. This means that if previously an item in Pakistan cost PKR 800, the American had to pay $800/80=$10. But now since PKR has appreciated he has to pay $800/70=$11.43. So it costs him more now and depending on the elasticity of demand, he might buy less or not buy at all. So an appreciation of currency is not necessarily a good thing. On the other hand imports become cheaper. E.g. if a barrel of oil cost $100, a Pakistani importer had to pay PKR 100x80=PKR 8000 per barrel. But now he has to pay PKR 100x70= PKR 7000 per barrel. However as imports increase this can create inflationary pressures in the economy and on the balance of payments. If exports are greater than imports, all things held

Women Expatriates Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Women Expatriates - Research Paper Example This asserts that their main task in an organization is to maintain the structure and philosophy of the organization. However, the women expatriates should have a different cross-cultural training program because of the numerous challenges they face (Ismail & Tahir, 2007). In this program, they are supposed to learn how to interrelate with their male co-workers. This affirms that women expatriates are of high benefit to companies. Recent research confirms that women expatriates have several advantages over the male expatriates. This is mostly attributed to the socialization of a woman with her co-workers. This enables them to understand all the surrounding happenings. Therefore, most women use their socialization ability as an asset over their male counterpart. On the other hand, the men expatriates are regarded as more competent compared to the women (Ismail & Tahir, 2007). In most companies, there are more men expatriates than the women expatriates. Women also face different challenges as expatriates. The most common challenge that women face in their line of duty is the bad treatment which is usually by the male co-workers in the company. The male expatriates mostly face cross-cultural challenges in their new environment. This is because they are faced with ‘cultural shock’ in the new environment. Nowadays, women are faced with various challenges and adjustment problems in the expatriate profession. One of the most common challenges is related to the custom and religion aspect. In most multiethnic countries, women expatriates experience a difficulty in understanding the dress code of local individuals (Haile, Jones, & Emmanuel, 2007). According to various sources, when women expatriates do not understand the proper dress code, they might end up dressing against the social norms thus; the locals can portray negative remarks. Therefore, companies are supposed to provide a cross-cultural training program to the expatriates for

Earnnings management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Earnnings management - Essay Example earnings management plays a crucial role in determining the share prices of a listed company and also impact the direct allocation of resources buy the company in the capital markets. This paper is written with the aim of researching on the earnings management and reporting techniques, focusing on the big bath technique of earnings management. The main objective of the report is to understand the process of earnings management, especially the big bath technique of earnings management which is commonly used by companies and their managers to manipulate the reporting of the earning of the company. Earnings management is an important aspect of the financial management of any company. Earnings being crucial elements of the financial statements of a business, the evaluation and management of different types of earning are done by the management of any firm to ensure that the stock prices of the business remains high in the capital markets. There are many techniques that are traditionally a contemporarily applied for the management, manipulation and accounting of earnings in the financial statement publication of an enterprise. The study of the topic of earnings management and the much debated technique of earnings management and manipulation which is the big bath technique is critical in the contemporary corporate world. The management of earnings can have key influences on the political and regulatory structures of a country, the economic systems and prospects in the country and can also alter the functioning of industries as well as the investor groups of the business. Additionally, it may lead to crisis situations like financial downturns, extended low periods in the economic and business cycles and can also threaten the interests of the stakeholder groups of a business1. The use of manipulative techniques in earnings management can play a key role in misleading the investors and analysts in relation to the determination of the investment profile and investment

Regression Analysis Models for Marketing Decision Making Essay

Regression Analysis Models for Marketing Decision Making - Essay Example Regression analysis is a statistical technique that determines linear relationships between two or more variables. Businesses mainly use regression as a causal inference and for predictions. The major regression models available are linear regression model, non-linear regression model, logistic regression and multinomial logistic regression. Simple regression models use only two variables to achieve a particular statistical result. Multiple linear regression is a regression that applies more than two variables. Logistic regression procedures in quantitative statistics will produce all predictions, residuals and influence statistics. Logistic regression also produces goodness-of-fit tests using sales and marketing data in the case where it has to make predictions for the marketing department. The goodness-of-fit tests are created at the individual case level, and this is regardless of methods of data insertion and whether or not the number of covariate patterns is lesser than the total number of instances in question. On the other hand, multinomial logistic regression procedure aggregates all cases internally to form subpopulations with identical covariate patterns for the predictors, residuals, and goodness-of-tests. Non-linear regression is a quantitative statistical method of finding a nonlinear model of the relationship between the dependent variable and a set of several independent variables. Current non-linear models can be used to estimate models with arbitrary relationships between dependent and independent variables. Iterative estimation is mostly used to achieve non-linear regression. Predicting future marketing trends is business is an essential requirement for the management if they have to beat the competition. This is because a lot of the data is available for use by business nowadays due to advancements in technology like the web that collects a lot of statistical data for analysis. The primary problem facing businesses is identifying the  optimal data analysis model to use in the analysis the quantitative data and getting valid information for predicting the future marketing trends.

Managed Care Organization Essay Example for Free

Managed Care Organization Essay USLegal.com A managed care organization (MCO) is a health care provider or a group or organization of medical service providers who offers managed care health plans. It is a health organization that contracts with insurers or self-insured employers and finances and delivers health care using a specific provider network and specific services and products. They provide a wide variety of quality and managed health care services to enrolled workers keeping medical costs down through preventative medicine, patient education, and in other ways. These organizations are certified by the director of the Department of Consumer and Business Services (DCBS). MCOs vary in their constitution as some organizations are made of physicians, while others are combinations of physicians, hospitals, and other providers. For instance, a group practice without walls, independent practice association, management services organization, and a physician practice management company are the common MCO’s. Patient Advocate Foundation Providers of care, such as hospitals, physicians, laboratories, clinics, etc., make up a managed care organization delivery system often known as an MCO. Seven common MCO models are: 1. Preferred Provider Organization (PPO) An arrangement whereby a third-party payer (health plan) contracts with a group of medical-care providers who furnish services at agreed-upon rates in return for prompt payment and a certain volume of patients, perhaps under contract with a private insurer. The services may be furnished at discounted rates, and the insured population may incur out-of-pocket expenses for covered services received outside the PPO if the outside charge exceeds the PPO payment rate. 2. Point-of-Service Plan (POS) Also known as an open-ended HMO, POS plans encourage, but do not require, members to choose a primary care physician. As in traditional HMOs, the primary care physician may act as a gatekeeper when making referrals; plan members may, however, opt to visit out-of-network providers at their discretion. Subscribers choosing not to use a network physician must pay higher deductibles and co-payments than those using network physicians. 3. Exclusive Provider Organization (EPO) A  network of providers that have agreed to provide services on a discounted basis. Enrollees typically do not need referrals for services from network providers (including specialists), but if a patient elects to seek care outside of the network, then he or she will not be reimbursed for the cost of the treatment. An EPO typically does not provide the preventive benefits and quality assurance monitor. 4. Physician-Hospital Organization (PHO) A contracted arrangement among physicians and hospital wherein a single entity, the Physician Hospital Organization, contracts to provide services to insurers subscribers. 5. Individual Practice Association (IPA) A formal organization of physicians or other providers through which they may enter into contractual relationships with health plans or employers to provide certain benefits or services. 6. Managed Indemnity Program A program in which the insurer pays for the cost of covered services after services have been rendered and uses various tools to monitor cost-effectiveness, such as precertification, second surgical opinion, case management, and utilization review. Also called managed fee-for-service programs. 7. Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) HMOs offer prepaid, comprehensive health coverage for both hospital and physician services. An HMO contracts with health care providers, e.g., physicians, hospitals, and other health professionals, and members are required to use participating providers for all health services. Model types include staff, group practice, network, and IPA. They differ in their financial and organizational arrangements between the HMO and its physicians. Some HMOs combine various attributes of the four principal models. WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH SERVICES When a person decides to enroll in Family Care, they become a member of a managed care organization (MCO). MCOs operate the Family Care program and provide or coordinate services in the Family Care benefit. The Family Care benefit combines funding and services from a variety of existing programs into one flexible long-term care benefit, tailored to each individual’s needs, circumstances and preferences. View a list of items covered in the Family Care benefit package. In order to assure access to services, MCOs develop and manage a comprehensive network of long-term care services and support, either through purchase of service contracts with providers, or by  direct service provision by MCO employees. MCOs are responsible for assuring and continually improving the quality of care and services consumers receive. MCOs receive a per person per month payment to manage care for their members, who may be living in their own homes, group living situations, or nursing facilities. Some highlights of the Family Care benefit are: When a person decides to enroll in Family Care, they become a member of a managed care organization (MCO). MCOs operate the Family Care program and provide or coordinate services in the Family Care benefit. The Family Care benefit combines funding and services from a variety of existing programs into one flexible long-term care benefit, tailored to each individual’s needs, circumstances and preferences. View a list of items covered in the Family Care benefit package. In order to assure access to services, MCOs develop and manage a comprehensive network of long-term care services and support, either through purchase of service contracts with providers, or by direct service provision by MCO employees. MCOs are responsible for assuring and continually improving the quality of care and services consumers receive. MCOs receive a per person per month payment to manage care for their members, who may be living in their own homes, group living situations, or nursing facilities. Some highlights of the Family Care benefit are: People Receive Services Where They Live. MCO members receive Family Care services where they live, which may be in their own home or supported apartment, or in alternative residential settings such as Residential Care Apartment Complexes, Community-Based Residential Facilities, Adult Family Homes, Nursing Homes, or Intermediate Care Facilities for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities. People Receive Interdisciplinary Case Management. Each member has support from an interdisciplinary team that consists of, at a minimum, a social worker/care manager and a Registered Nurse. Other professionals, as appropriate, also participate as members of the interdisciplinary team. The interdisciplinary team conducts a comprehensive  assessment of the member’s needs, abilities, preferences and values with the consumer and his or her representative, if any. The assessment looks at areas such as activities of daily living, physical health, nutrition, autonomy and self-determination, communication, and mental health and cognition. People Participate in Determining the Services They Receive. Members or their authorized representatives take an active role with the interdisciplinary team in developing their care plans. MCOs provide support and information to assure members are making informed decisions about their needs and the services they receive. Members may also participate in the Self-Directed Supports component of Family Care, in which they have increased control over their long-term care budgets and providers. People Receive Family Care Services that Include: Long-Term Care Services that have traditionally been part of the Medicaid Waiver programs or the Community Options Program. These include services such as adult day care, home modifications, home delivered meals and supportive home care. Health Care Services that help people achieve their long-term care outcomes. These services include home health, skilled nursing, mental health services, and occupational, physical and speech therapy. For Medicaid recipients, health care services not included in Family Care are available through the Medicaid fee-for-service program. People Receive Help Coordinating Their Primary Health Care. In addition to assuring that people get the health and long-term care services in the Family Care benefit package, the MCO interdisciplinary teams also help members coordinate all their health care, including, if needed, helping members get to and communicate with their physicians and helping them manage their treatments and medications. People Receive Services to Help Achieve Their Employment Objectives. Services such as daily living skills training, day treatment, pre-vocational services and supported employment are included in the Family Care benefit package. Other Family Care services such as transportation and personal care also help people meet their employment goals. People Receive the Services that Best Achieve Their Outcomes. The MCO is not restricted to providing only the specific services listed in the Family Care benefit package. The MCO interdisciplinary care management team and the member may decide that other services, treatments or supports are  more likely to help the member achieve his or her outcomes, and the MCO would then authorize those services in the member’s care plan. For a complete list of the services that must be offered by MCOs, refer to the description of the long-term care benefit package in the Health and Community Supports Contract. People Receive Services Where They Live. MCO members receive Family Care services where they live, which may be in their own home or supported apartment, or in alternative residential settings such as Residential Care Apartment Complexes, Community-Based Residential Facilities, Adult Family Homes, Nursing Homes, or Intermediate Care Facilities for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities. People Receive Interdisciplinary Case Management. Each member has support from an interdisciplinary team that consists of, at a minimum, a social worker/care manager and a Registered Nurse. Other professionals, as appropriate, also participate as members of the interdisciplinary team. The interdisciplinary team conducts a comprehensive assessment of the member’s needs, abilities, preferences and values with the consumer and his or her representative, if any. The assessment looks at areas such as activities of daily living, physical health, nutrition, autonomy and self-determination, communication, and mental health and cognition. People Participate in Determining the Services They Receive. Members or their authorized representatives take an active role with the interdisciplinary team in developing their care plans. MCOs provide support and information to assure members are making informed decisions about their needs and the services they receive. Members may also participate in the Self-Directed Supports component of Family Care, in which they have increased control over their long-term care budgets and providers. People Receive Family Care Services that Include: Long-Term Care Services that have traditionally been part of the Medicaid Waiver programs or the Community Options Program. These include services such as adult day care, home modifications, home delivered meals and supportive home care. Health Care Services that help people achieve their long-term care outcomes. These services include home health, skilled nursing, mental health services, and occupational, physical and speech therapy. For Medicaid recipients, health care services not included in Family Care are available through the Medicaid fee-for-service program. People Receive Help Coordinating Their Primary Health Care. In addition to assuring that people get the health and long-term care services in the Family Care benefit package, the MCO interdisciplinary teams also help members coordinate all their health care, including, if needed, helping members get to and communicate with their physicians and helping them manage their treatments and medications. People Receive Services to Help Achieve Their Employment Objectives. Services such as daily living skills training, day treatment, pre-vocational services and supported employment are included in the Family Care benefit package. Other Family Care services such as transportation and personal care also help people meet their employment goals. People Receive the Services that Best Achieve Their Outcomes. The MCO is not restricted to providing only the specific services listed in the Family Care benefit package. The MCO interdisciplinary care management team and the member may decide that other services, treatments or supports are more likely to help the member achieve his or her outcomes, and the MCO would then authorize those services in the member’s care plan. For a complete list of the services that must be offered by MCOs, refer to the description of the long-term care benefit package in the Health and Community Supports Contract. A managed care organization (MCO) is a health care provider or a group of association of medical examination providers who proposes accomplished health plans. It is a health group that bonds with insurers or self-insured employers and funds and provides health care by means of a definite provider system and precise facilities and products. An MCO is an insurer that delivers both healthcare amenities and payment on behalf of services. They offer a comprehensive range of quality and managed health care services to the joined employees by keeping medical charges down through preventive medicine, patient teaching, and in additional ways. These organizations are certified by the director of the Department of Consumer and Business Services (DCBS). MCOs vary in their constitution as some organizations are made of physicians, while others are combinations of physicians, hospitals, and other providers. For instance, a group practice without walls, independent practice association, management services organization, and a physician practice management company are the common MCO’s.

Norwegian International Ship (NIS) Register: Pros and Cons

Norwegian International Ship (NIS) Register: Pros and Cons Introduction The concept of ship registration dates back to the time when vessels started to sail under national flags. Belonging to different countries, the nationality of a ship provides not only protection of the owners rights, support and other advantages, but also responsibilities and certain limitations. Registration means subjecting the ship to the jurisdiction of a country. However, the ways and approaches to ship registration were not rigid and inflexible. Prior to the 1980s, national registers were the only phenomenon in the ship registration practice. But the so-called open registers appeared due to several developing countries, such as Panama, Liberia and the Bahamas. They provided more flexible conditions and lower costs than national registers. Ship owners were attracted by open registers to become more competitive in comparison with their rivals. The response of the developed countries was to introduce international or second registers that gave wider opportunities than national on es, but provided better technical support and service to the member-vessels. The current literature review is aimed at providing the overall classification of ship register types and to concentrate on the four registering companies: NIS, NOR (Norwegian Ship registers), IOM Ship Register (Isle of Man) and UK Ship Register. Definition, Classification and Functions of Ship Registers Rayfuse (2004) argues that according to existing international legislation, ships are allowed to sail under the flag of one country only. Consequently, the concept of a ship register or flag state addresses a vessel to the state, which carries out the regulatory control over this ship (Harwood, 2006). However, this registration will imply further certification and inspection of the ship. Special attention is given by ship registers to the maintenance of environmental regulations and the prevention of pollution (Raikes, 2009). Hinkelman (2005) proposed an overwhelming classification of ship registers types. The researcher argues that all the register types are subdivided into national registers, flags of convenience (FOCs), second registers and bareboat charter registers. In the case of national registers, the direct link between the nationality of the vessels owner and the flag state is implied. National registers are often referred to as closed registers (Hinkelman, 2005). Flags of convenience (FOCs) do not directly link the nationality of the owner with the state flag. On the contrary, they are foreign registers, which provide more convenient conditions for the ship owners. Bareboat charter registers grant the possibility to obtain for vessels a foreign registration for a certain time period. However, they retain their primary registration (Hinkelman, 2005). The current dissertation focuses predominantly on second and national registers. Second registers are often referred to as offshore registers. Their operation is determined by the International Transport Workers Federation (ITF) (Mulcahy and Tillotson, 2004). This type of register is usually established either by the separate legislation in the country, which already has a national (primary register), or in the offshore territory with the direct legal connection to the host country. The main second registers are the Norwegian International Ship Register (NIS) (Norway), Isle of Man (UK), Madeira (Portugal), Kerguelen (France) and Danish International Ship Register (DIS) (Denmark) (Farthing and Brownrigg, 1997). From the standpoint of the world economy, the main function of international ship registers is to assist in global maritime commerce. According to Odeke (1998) this assistance may be seen in eliminating certain restrictions and limitations imposed by primary registers. Besides the implementation of the official control function, international registers protect the rights of the owners of vessels. Furthermore, second registers tend to subscribe certain original regulations for vessels owners. They stipulate definite manning, taxation rules and safety requirements (Chircop and LindÃÆ'Â ©n, 2006). For instance, the nationality requirements for manning are usually relaxed by the international registers. At the same time, the second register country has the right to call all registered vessels in the event of war or other emergencies (DeSombre, 2006). Klikauer and Morris (2002) argue that it is beneficial for countries to have their own second registers. International registers charge registration taxes and fees from the vessels owners. Even providing the above mentioned services to the ships, they remain profitable. International registers attract ship owners, as they ordinary provide more favourable conditions and terms than those of the home states (Raikes, 2009). It may be even stated that the second registers compete against each other in attracting new candidates. Norwegian International Ship (NIS) Register Background The Norwegian International Ship Register was founded in 1987. The second register provides the possibility of the registration and certification for vessels under the flag of Norway, which has been an outstanding nautical nation since the time of the Vikings. The main purpose of the NIS is formulated as the following: to offer a flexible and commercially attractive alternative to open registers while retaining the essential features of quality registers (Branch, 2007, p. 164). The organisation was established to compete against other international registers for the benefit of Norway. The Norwegian International Ship Register allows the certification of the following types of ships: hovercraft, cargo and self-propelled ships, movable platforms and installations. The citizenship of the owner is not limited or restricted by the NIS. The ships sailing under the Norwegian flag have to subject to the jurisdiction of that country. The key differences with the ordinary NOR may be seen in the following. First, according to the NIS, direct certification of foreign companies is allowed which is not possible in case of NOR. Secondly, according to the NIS, the employment of foreign crew with the standard local salary level is allowed. Limitations of the NIS The limitations subscribed by the NIS were originally formulated by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) of Norway and the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The main limitation of the NIS is that the ships under the Norwegian flag are not allowed to carry passengers or cargo from one Norwegian port to another Norwegian port. Furthermore, regular transportation of passengers between foreign and Norwegian ports is not permitted either. It is specified that Norwegian gas and oil installations are considered to be Norwegian ports from the standpoint of this limitation. Despite the fact that the NIS legislation allows foreign ownership of the vessel, owners are obliged to have a Norwegian representative. This requirement may be also interpreted as a limitation for foreign owners. Another limitation may be seen in the fact that a foreign crew of the vessel is not allowed to carry out all the technical and commercial maintenance operations by themselves. Furthermore, their home country cannot be involved in these operations either. The NIS legislation implies the participation of the third party, a Norwegian company, which will accomplish the minimum set of technical and commercial operations for a foreign vessel. Hence, a certain degree of dependence in technical and financial operations for foreign vessels may be classified as a limitation because crew cannot make a choice of their own. At the same time, the NIS legislation does not limit the age of the vessel to be registered. The main requirement is satisfactory technical functioning of the ship. The Number of Registered Ships It is reasonable to trace back the dynamics of the registered quantities of vessels in the NIS. At the beginning of 1999, the number of registered vessels was equal to 705. In forthcoming years it was fluctuating and finally dropped. In 2000, 2001 and 2002 the number of the registered vessels constituted 712, 717 and 693 respectively. However, in 2008, this figure constituted only 577 vessels. The NIS registered 358 vessels owned by the Norwegians and 192 owned by foreigners. This illustrates that the general tend in the number of NIS registration was decreasing. To estimate the NIS registration in tonnage, the following indicators can be mentioned. During the period from 1999 to 2005, the tonnage of the NIS registered vessels changed from 19,000 gross tons to around 14,000 gross tons. Again, the overall trend for the NIS registers in tonnage was decreasing. Advantages The following advantages can be attributed to registration in the NIS. Norwegians are universally recognised as a competent and experienced maritime nation. The Norwegian taxation system is relatively mild in comparison with the overall European taxation regulations. The Norwegian judicial system characterises itself as one of the most predictable and sophisticated towards the maritime business. The NIS system has a very good reputation, which eliminates further inspection of the cargo in foreign ports. The registered vessels will reap all the benefits of high-quality tonnage. The implementation by the NIS of other international standards, such as ILO, IMO, ISM, SOLAS, WTO, OECD and MARPOL, increases the universality and uniformity of their legislation, which is advantageous for trade. The NIS provides more than 500 service stations on a global scale, which are easy to apply to for technical and financial management and support. The income of the crews including foreign citizens is not taxed by the Norwegian authorities. Disadvantages It may be argued that the following disadvantages can be found in the NIS. Foreign owners and cargo or passenger transportation companies are not permitted to enter the internal Norwegian market. The NIS legislation does not allow transportation between Norwegian ports for foreign vessels. However, this disadvantage is recognised by foreign owners only. The Norwegian authorities secure themselves against additional competition in the sea transportation market, which is recognised as an advantage for them. Foreign ships have no possibility to turn to their domestic technical and financial support services. Ship owners have to coordinate their payments to the employees within Norwegian legislation. Mandatory participation of the Norwegian representative in the communication with the Norwegian government. Norwegian Ordinary Register (NOR) Background The Norwegian Ordinary Register (NOR) has certain similarities with the NIS, but the main difference may be found in the class of the register. According to the above given classification, the NOR belongs to the national type of registers. It means, that it emphasises the direct link between the nationality of the owner and the host country. The NOR can be considered a closed register. The NOR legislation implies two options upon registration of vessels: mandatory and voluntary registrations. The mandatory registration is necessary for all the Norwegian vessels, which have a length of 15 meters or more. However, if they are already registered in other countries (have international or second registration), the NOR registration is not required. The voluntary option of registration can be applied to the Norwegian vessels, which have a length from 7 to 15 meters. In addition, other vessels, which are not used for commercial purposes may be registered voluntarily according to the NOR. Floating docks and cranes, hovercrafts and installations and moving platforms can be registered on the voluntary basis. In all the other cases, which are prescribed by the Act concerning the Registration and Marking of Fishing Vessels, the registration of vessels is mandatory. Limitations of the NOR According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005), the main limitations of the NOR may be found in its nature of being a national or closed register. In particular, to be registered by the NOR, the shipping company is to be owned by an EEA citizen. Nevertheless, non-EEA ownership is possible too, but the share owned by the EEA citizens must be no less than 60%. If compared with the NIS, such limitation does not exist there. On registration in the NOR, the company that owns a vessels becomes a company with limited liability. The headquarters of a cargo or passenger transporter must be on the territory of the EEA. Similar requirements are attributed to the crew of the vessel registered in accordance with the NOR standards. The prevailing majority of the crew members including the captain itself are to be EEA citizens, who had resided in the EEA area the two preceding years. Another limitation deals with the technical and financial management of the registered vessel. The NOR legislation allows technical support for a vessel from a Norwegian technical servicer only. The maintenance may be given abroad, but this company has to ultimately belong to Norway. The Number of Registered Ships In 2007, the total number of vessels registered in NOR was equal to 749. In 2008, this figure increased by 2.8% and was equal to 770. The NOR registration in tonnage was equal to 2,411 gross tons in 2007. In 2008, this figure decreased and constituted only 2,305 gross tons. It is quite difficult to comment about the tend in the NOR registrations because the two recent years demonstrated a small rise in numbers, but a fall in tonnage. Advantages The following advantages are usually attributed to the NOR. The vessels operating in the inner market reap the benefits of high-quality support and the protection of foreign competitors. Sophisticated and highly experienced maritime tradition contributes greatly to the development of sea transportation businesses for different types of vessels. It is beneficial for ship owners that the country has two types of ship registers: national and international. Disadvantages The following disadvantages may be seen in the NOR registration for vessels. The registration fees are not stable and fluctuate from year to year depending on the prescriptions of the Maritime Act. Opportunities of technical support are limited only to the domestic providers of this service. It may be concluded that as Norwegian International Ship (NIS) Register and Norwegian Ordinary Registers (NOR) belong to one country, they have much in common. However, the main difference between these registers is that they belong to different register groups: national (NOR) and international or second (NIS) registers. The NOR completely binds the registered ships to the host country, Norway. It may be noticed in terms of ownership, cooperation with maintenance and support services and the location of the headquarters. The NIS naturally allows foreign ownership, but the limitation of mandatory service remains. Moreover, companies are obliged to have a Norwegian representative. UK Register Background The UK register is part of the Maritime and Coastal Agency (MCA), which controls and monitors all of the marine activity in the UK. Since the UK is a kingdom, all of the activity is ultimately answerable to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain. The UK register is a closed register. The UK register handles: Merchant ships Fishing vessels Large yachts Pleasure Crafts/ Small ships With 116 (UK Ship Register, 2010) ports around the UK, all of the above vessels can register and receive a UK flag. Although the register provides a list of restrictions on who can be registered, it covers quite a wide range of geographical locations (e.g. British Dependant territories citizens, EEA countries, those that have a registered business in one of the EEA countries). Benefits of having a UK Flag The UK flag is considered to be one of the best performing flags in the world, ranking 3rd (lowest by risk) in the Paris MoU list The UK Flag is one of the top performing Flags on the Paris MoU White List' (UK register, 2010). The register is proud to offer their customers assistance both before and after registration. Financially, it rewards its members with relatively low annual renewal fees and contributes around ÂÂ £1.4 million to a Crew Relief Cost Scheme. Furthermore, UK registered ships are not targeted by Port State Control regimes in the worlds major trading areas ISPS plan approvals and verification audits at no cost to owners and operators An international reputation for expert advice and guidance with a proactive leading role at the IMO, EU and Quality Shipping Committees Worldwide security threat level information provided to UK registered ships with support for British Nationals on board from British Consuls and Royal Navy protection dependent on the availability of assets and exact situation Quality Assurance offering certification to ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 standards with audits being taken in harmonisation with ISM Alternate Compliance Scheme: A voluntary scheme that streamlines the survey and certification process by minimising duplication of effort with Classification Societies. Eligibility is conditional upon certain criteria being met (UK Register, 2010). Disadvantages of the UK Flag The National Audit Office (2009) has reported that the efficiency with which the MAC operates has deteriorated over the years. Until 2000 the agency have managed to carry out all of the required surveys in order to check the quality of the ships that operate under a UK flag. However, by 2007, the targets were not met. Furthermore, it was predicted, that the targets would not be met again in 2008-2009. Failure to meet its targets will increase the risk that UK vessels which do not comply with regulations operate without detection in UK ports and waters (National Audit Office, 2009, p.5). In order to be efficient, the MAC needs more resources However, at the moment, even the cost of surveys are not met by the revenues that are brought in by the owners of the vessels. Another worrying fact, is that the quality of the UK flag, which has been enjoying a very good reputation over the years, is starting to disappear. The audit has found that an increasing number of UK flag holders are being detained overseas due to the inability to pass quality checks. Although relatively this detention number is lower compared to other flags, it has been argued that the difference is getting smaller every year. Partly, because the quality of the other flags is increasing and partly because the quality of the UK flag vessels is deteriorating. Registered Ships In order to increase the growth in registered ships, the Government has introduced a tonnage tax in 2000. In turn, instead of charging vessels on the profits that they make off their activities, they are now charged on the tonnage of their vessels. This regulatory measure has allowed the UK register to see a good increase in the number of vessels. By the end of 2007 the UK registered merchant fleet had grown from 1,050 to 1,518. Of these, 646 vessels were trading vessels compared with 417 vessels in 2000 (National Audit Office, 2009, p.5). The tonnage that was brought in also increased. In 2007, the average tonnage per vessel increased from 11,000 to 19,000. This increase had an interesting effect on the number of overseas surveys that the MCA had to perform in 2007. Nearly a quarter of them had to be done overseas. This is a large increase, considering that in 2000-2001, 5% were performed overseas, while the rest were done domestically (National Audit Office, 2009, p.5). Large increases were also seen in the number of Certificates of Equivalent Competency that were issued, from 3,244 in 2003 to 4,722 in 2007. However, although absolute numbers have increased, the overall rate of growth has declined. In 2007, the fleet grew by 10%, compared to 13.33% average growth from 2001 to 2003. The MAC argues that too many external factors are at play, which do not allow them to enhance the growth with more control. For example, the MAC found that some shipping companies were happy to wait and see whether the EU would bring in a tonnage tax as well, before making the final decision on their flagging. In turn, this shows that although the UK ship register provides a large number of benefits, they are not relatively strong enough to become a deciding factor for the shipping companies. Isle of Man Registry Background Isle of Man Registry (IOM) works closely with the Isle of Man government to provide relevant solutions to its members. Tynwald (the local parliament) is ultimately answerable to the Crown, however, as has long been agreed, the UK government does not legislate the IOM, and therefore, shipping legislation is approved by Tynwald alone. The Isle of Man operates a Category One, Red Ensign Group British Register that provides for the registration of ships of any size or type. The Isle of Man Register is a component part of the British Register (The Red Ensign Group, 2010). IOM registry is relatively new, established only in 1984. Over the years, the IOM has seeked local private solutions for its clients, and today works closely with local marine lawyers, accountants, PI clubs and even banks, bringing a diverse, one-stop-shop solution to anyone who registers. Due to its offshore jurisdiction capabilities and proximity to Europe, IOM can provide a highly competitive solution. The IOM strongly competes on its tax exemption regime, its financial centre capabilities and developed technical solutions whilst on the island. The IOM registers a large number of different vessels, including VLCC, superyachts, fishing boats and pleasure crafts. Advantages of the IOM The Isle of Man Ship Registry has recently been voted best in the world, claiming the top spot in the international shipping industry round table annual flag state performance table (PDMS, 2008). Like the rest of the registrars, IOM conveys that it will provide the ship owners with the cost-efficient and customer-friendly solution. Quality is key to the Isle of Man, where our reputation as a high quality jurisdiction makes us the flag of choice for todays modern maritime business (IOM, 2010). Furthermore, the website states that this registers customer service has a can-do approach. A professional Ship Registry providing a high quality of service available 24/7 with fast response to queries Reasonable costs and no annual tonnage dues A favourable taxation regime designed to encourage business The right to fly the Red Ensign and access the support of British consular services world-wide and British Royal Navy protection Flexibility in the requirements for registered owners The availability of Demise registry both IN and OUT Support for ships treated unfairly by Port State Control Full political support for shipping ISO 9001/2008 Accreditation Not a Flag of Convenience Regular advice bulletins on key issues to help owners respond to them (IOM, 2010). Unlike the rest of the registers, it can be argued that IOM offers a number of unique solutions and help. For example, the Ship Managers and Owner Association (IOMSA) brings together the ship owners with the relevant legal and financial representatives, where they are able to discuss outstanding issues and come up with solutions. A similar association is offered to the superyachts sector (Manx Yacht Forum). In turn, it can be argued, that the register can see the issues quickly and address them, which takes the customer service to a different level. Furthermore, since a large proportion of its business is coming from the private yacht owners, the IOM offers one annual yacht fee, which includes all of the charges and exemptions in it already. This makes it very easy for the owners to delegate all of their paper work to the registers, without getting involved in the complex structure of the system. The Annual Report (2008) puts strong emphases on the quality of the vessels that register with the IOM registry. Consistent quality checks before the registration and during the time that the vessel is under the IOM flag, reflects in the strong decline in the number of accidents that the IOM are subject to. Over 5 years, the number of accidents declined from 53 in 2004 to 35 in 2008 (Annual Report, 2008, p. 20). The Number of Registered Ships The IOM has grown over the years, yet, this growth has never been aggressive. In 2008, its main growth was in the registration of yachts, where the target was to register 1 per month. In 2008, 995 vessels were sailing under the IOM flag. Figure 1. IOM registered vessels by type Source: IOM, Annual Report, 2008, p. 10 It is extremely important for the IOM register to be within the first third on the Paris MOU register. So far, out of 83 members of the Paris MOU, they have managed to stay within the first 11. Figure 2: Paris MOU register and IOM position Source: Annual Report, 2008, p. 21 Conclusion The literature review has shown that there are the second registers have been developed by the countries in order to compete with those that were offered by the developing countries. The closed registers examined still prevail in size (by the number of registered vessels), however, the difference is not very large. Each of the registers offers their members a large number of benefits. However, as the case with NIS has shown, reluctance to be flexible is likely to results in less demand for their services. It was interesting to see the results produced by IOM. The registry has managed to grow steadily, despite having a large amount of competition. The low costs that the IOM offers has not impacted on the quality of the service provided. It has been found that the UK Register is much bigger in size than NOR and enjoys a steady growth. Despite the deteriorating ability to meet its survey targets, it still has the 3rd place in the MOU whitelist (see Appendix). It can be argued that if the vessels are less likely to be detained overseas due to deficiencies, this plays an important part on their ability to make a profit. Therefore, low risk registers, such as the UK Register is likely to be more attractive. Both NIS and NOR has seen a decline in their registered members. It can be argued that unlike the UK register and the IOM, they did not make enough competitive changes to stay attractive. References AppleBy (2009) Brief: Ship registration in the Isle of Man [online]: http://dc.co.im/uploaded/Publication/1362_File_5.pdf [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Branch, A. (2007) Elements of shipping, 7th ed., Taylor Francis, p. 164 Burroughs R (1984) Offshore supply vessels: An emerging maritime industry Maritime Policy Management, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 269 276 The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (2008) UK Ship Register continues to grow [online]: http://www.ciltuk.org.uk/pages/industry-news/article?EBA1745A-D18A-4443-A2FE-946C24DFD242 [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Chircop, A. and LindÃÆ'Â ©n, O. (2006) Places of refuge for ships: emerging environmental concerns of a maritime custom, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, p. 265 Department of Trade and Industry (2010) Registration of Manx Ships [online]: http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/dti/shipregistry/Registration/rans/ran01registrationofmanxships.pdf [Accessed on 2 March 2010] DeSombre, E. (2006) Flagging standards: globalization and environmental, safety, and labor regulations at sea, MIT Press, p. 83 Farthing, B. and Brownrigg, M. (1997) Farthing on international shipping, 3rd ed., the University of Virginia, p. 187 Harwood, S. (2006) Shipping finance, 3rd ed., Euromoney Books, pp. 200-204 Hinkelman, E. (2005) Dictionary of international trade: handbook of the global trade community includes 21 key appendices, 6th ed., World Trade Press, p. 374 IOM (2008) Annual Report, [online]: http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/dti/shipregistry/formsdocs/reports/iomsr/reportfinalwebsiteonly.pdf [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Isle of Man (2010) Ship registry [online]: http://www.gov.im/dti/shipregistry/ [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Isle of Man Government (2010) Registry: Qualified Owners [online]: http://www.gov.im/dti/shipregistry/registration/qualifiedowners.xml [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Klikauer, T. and Morris, R. (2002) Into murky waters: Globalisation and deregulation in Germanys shipping employee relations, Employee Relations, Vol. 24, Issue: 1, pp. 12-28 Mulcahy, L. and Tillotson, J. (2004) Contract law in perspective, 4th ed., Routledge Cavendish, p. 147 National Audit Office (2009) The Maritime and Coastguard Agencys Response to Growth in the UK Merchant Fleet Great Britain, [online]: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sdq=HYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sUK+Ship+RegisterHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_sHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_slr=HYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navli nks_sHYPERLINK http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n5QIqJW-eVsCdq=UK+Ship+Registerlr=source=gbs_navlinks_ssource=gbs_navlinks_s [Accessed on 2 March 2010] NOR (2010) NOR [online]: http://www.nis-nor.no/NOR.aspx [Accessed on 2 March 2010] NIS (2010) NIS [online]: http://www.nis-nor.no/NHYPERLINK http://www.nis-nor.no/NOR.aspxISHYPERLINK http://www.nis-nor.no/NOR.aspx.aspx [Accessed on 2 March 2010] PDMS (2008) Client: Isle of Man Register [online] http://www.pdms.com/clients/casestudies/marineadmin.xml [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Odeke, A. (1998) Bareboat charter (ship) registration, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 8-9 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005) National treatment for foreign-controlled enterprises, OECD Publishing, p. 73 Paris MOU (2010) Black Grey White list [online]: http://www.parismou.org/upload/anrep/BGWlist2006-2008.pdf [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Paris MOU (2010) Basic Figures [online]: http://www.parismou.org/ParisMOU/Statistical+information/Basic+figures/xp/menu.4270/default.aspx [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Raikes, F. (2009) The Maritime Codes of Italy, BiblioBazaar, LLC, p. 115 Rayfuse, R. (2004) Non-flag state enforcement in high seas fisheries, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, p. 22 Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009) Research Methods for Business Students, 5th ed., Pearson Education, pp. 56-66 Ship Management (2010) Isle of Man to introduce annual fee in April [online] http://www.shipmanagementinternational.com/?p=1557 [Accessed on 2 March 2010] Sletmo G. and S. HosteÂÂ  (1993) Shipping and the competitive advantage of nations: the role of international

Escort Services An International Perspective

Escort Services An International Perspective INTRODUCTION   This paper will consider some of the key issues and challenges surrounding escort services provision. Where possible the arguments and discussions presented seek to generate a broader, more international view in order to encourage open debate around this socially, culturally and legally sensitive topic (Laskowski, 2002).  Ã‚   In examining this area, the initial difficulty is in capturing a single, shared understanding of what escort services are (Scoular O’Neill, 2007). Most societal expectations automatically generate an assumption that the individual providing escort services is a sex worker, although the range of activities involved can include more benign requirements such as social companionship (Burghart, 2017). Many escort agencies operate within legal national frameworks by openly offering such companionship or more accepted services (e.g. massages). The personal nature of those activities then creates the environment within which subsequent informal and less open negotiations around what sexual services (if any) can be provided by the escort (UK National Escorts Association, 2018).   It therefore follows that escort services involve the provision of personal, intimate and tailored engagement to a client for remuneration, which may or may not include the provision of sexual services (Agustin, 2009).   ASSUMPTIONS AND EXCLUSIONS   This paper focusses on the provision of female escort services, offered directly or through an agency –male escort provision is not reviewed (Argento, Taylor, Jollimore, Taylor, Jennex, Krusi Shannon, 2016). No examination of the nature of these services is conducted, although a distinction is drawn between those activities deemed to be legal and illegal (Jeffreys, 2010). In taking a broader, more international perspective it is important to recognise that different national approaches will exist which means that in some cases the provision of sexual services is considered legal (Outshoorn, 2004). However, legal recognition does not necessarily translate into social and cultural acceptance for either the client or the escort worker(s) concerned (Agustin, 2009).   The demand for escort services, be they legal or illegal and with or without a sexual element is well established (Burghart, 2017). This paper therefore does not consider the perspective of clients but instead focusses on the issues shaping the actions and decisions of those women acting as escorts (Matthews, 2007).   THE EMPOWERMENT CASE   For women that choose to work as escorts, arguments have been presented which suggest that doing so provides them with a position of power and authority over their clients (Weitzer, 2007). They work in a sector that puts a particular value on their skills, abilities and attributes and the woman is able to direct and control to what extent she places herself ‘on the market’ e.g. whether to engage in sexual activity or not and if so, what those acts will be (Cho, Dreher Neumeyer, 2013). Whilst many services are engaged through a broker (the Escort Agency) which will take a fee for their involvement, charges for any additional activities are often arranged on a direct basis between the escort and the client (Laskowski, 2002).   However, such empowerment arguments assume that the woman concerned is operating within the realms of an established business framework which she can adapt to her own requirements (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017). They also imply that the women has exercised free will and choice in becoming an escort and that no coercion has been applied, such as that seen in many cases of people trafficking (O’Connor, 2017). Even where no overt coercion has been applied, women may feel that working as an escort is the only viable option given issues such as social/economic deprivation, personal addiction issues and unstable family backgrounds (Scoular O’Neill, 2007).   Consequently, any empowerment arguments presented must clearly consider the foundations underlying any perceptions of informed choice (Jeffreys, 2010). Even where such factors are not an issue (such as those women from A or B socio-economic groups with high net-worth clients), the social and cultural stigma around escort services can limit the extent to which women are truly empowered (Szirmai, 2015).  Ã‚   THE SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE   Many women working as escorts see themselves as offering an essential social service to their communities, supporting clients through periods of disruption and turbulence (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017). Examples cited include widowers seeking company (or even sexual services) without wishing to enter into another emotional relationship and those coping with the breakdown of a long-term relationship seeking guidance on how to re-engage effectively with women (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017). Whilst engaging vulnerable clients seeking emotional rather than physical support could be considered exploitative, competition within the sector could ensure that clients favour those women best able to meet the needs presented (Koken, 2010).   Legislative and social constraints do limit the effectiveness of such support given the stigma often associated with engaging escorts, even if no sexual content is involved (Koken, 2010). It could also be argued that the dominant focus on meeting physical/sexual requirements in the sector creates longer-term social problems, as the clients concerned are often unable to form stable, emotionally sound long-term relationships as a result (Weitzer, 2007). Those clients that regularly use escort services to meet both their physical and emotional needs may end up seeking to apply the same transactional thinking to external relationships, inadvertently undermining the status of women in that community (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017).   Where female workers are genuinely empowered, then social benefits can accrue. For example, the working hours involved and the income levels that can be sustained may allow them to remain both employed and effective, accessible parents when they may otherwise be relying on state support (Brooks-Gordon, 2006). However, the hidden and illegal nature of much of the escort sector economy limits social benefit potential (e.g. undeclared incomes and welfare concerns for the children of sex workers) (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017).  Ã‚  Ã‚   THE ECONOMIC RATIONALE   Many escort agencies operate as legitimate business interests, generating tax revenues and providing either paid employment or self-employment frameworks for the women concerned (UK National Escorts Association, 2018). The value proposition is on the provision of a booking service for time and companionship with women (UK National Escorts Association, 2018). It is the subsequent transactions between clients and those women which may or may not be legal and which may not necessarily form part of any transparent business activity which raise concerns (Matthews, 2007). Whilst the nature of business registration in the UK makes it difficult to identify tax revenues specifically attributed to escort agencies (which often register as entertainment services), it is estimated that prostitution (i.e. unregulated and untaxed activity) in that country sustains a spend of around  £770M each year (BBC, 2001; UK National Escorts Association, 2018).  Ã‚   Women working in the sector may therefore have the ability to generate and sustain incomes that their educational and social backgrounds would deny them in terms of more traditional employment routes (Weitzer, 2007). As such, depending on the legal and regulatory frameworks in place, they may be net financial contributors to society rather than a drain on national resources (Laskowski, 2007). However, such arguments are predicated on the concept of choice and empowerment as those women working in the sector to sustain addiction problems will still place greater demands on health and social welfare services (Rani, Jain Saxena, 2017). Also, the exploitation that exists in the sector through organised criminal activities (arguably fuelled by legislative and societal constraints around sex workers) means that significant escort revenues remain invisible to the national exchequers concerned (Sweeney Fitzgerald, 2017). Also, these hidden revenues can fund activities which create signific ant economic and social costs for the countries concerned (e.g. the drugs trade, money laundering and criminal violence) (O’Connor, 2017).  Ã‚   POLITICAL ISSUES   Political attitudes surrounding escort services are shaped by national/regional cultures, societal expectations and the legislative frameworks that result (Outshoorn, 2004). As a consequence, in many societies the political leadership prefer to maintain a discrete distance from the sector, rather than engage in open debate about the role of women as escorts (Brooks-Gordon, 2006). Whilst more enlightened attitudes are emerging, such as the operating of licenced establishments with Government health monitoring programmes and social support, anything outside of non-sexual escort activity is still considered illegal in many areas (Agustin, 2009). This limits the political support for women in the sector to focussing on applying criminal sanctions to clients rather than workers and/or the development of social programmes to encourage them to explore alternative employment options (Cho, Dreher Neumeyer, 2013).   As a consequence, many women working as escorts (employed and self-employed) are denied a legitimate political voice within their societies (Outshoorn, 2004). This again calls into question the concept of empowerment, as it is difficult for the women concerned to influence decision-makers about their working conditions, rates of pay and employment rights (Bartlett Kennedy, 2018). This lack of power and influence has led to these women becoming even more isolated from (and controlled by) mainstream society as their roles and life choices are debated and regulated by others (Outshoorn, 2004).   THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY   The advent of modern technology solutions, particularly social networking platforms has provided women with a means to directly access the market for escort services (Heymann-Reder, 2012). The ease with which websites can be created and the willingness of consumers to provide (anonymous) feedback in relation to the services received can negate the need to use agency resources to source, screen and support clients (Tuten Solomon, 2014). This also extends to payment services which further supports women working in the sector in establishing a viable, self-managed business model (Henry, 2011). Such approaches mirror the growth in self-employment opportunities for women in the service sector, where on-line demand for associated skills such as massage and male grooming services can provide a conduit for the marketing of escort activities (Cader Al Tenaiji, 2013).   However, technology developments also expose workers to greater risk (Sanders, O’Neill Pitcher, 2017). The absence of any third-party, escort agency involvement means that women may find themselves alone when coping with an aggressive client or one unwilling to pay for the services received (Jeffreys, 2010). It also introduces a new skills requirement as those pursuing such technology solutions will need to effectively manage and deploy the technology in order to build a sustainable business (Heymann-Reder, 2012).  Ã‚   LEGAL CONCERNS   Whilst those operating escort services as a legitimate business model are afforded the same legal protections as the wider society concerned, often the provision of sexual services falls outside of such frameworks (Cho, Dreher Neumeyer, 2013). Consequently, the women involved are committing criminal acts even though they are meeting a demand that society is aware of and which addresses a clear social need (Jeffreys, 2010). This means that when such women require the full protection of law – for example, if assaulted by a client – the very nature of their profession often means that they are denied that support (Bartlett Kennedy, 2018). The level of violence and associated criminal activity in the sector is therefore well known, but chronically under-reported by those that experience it (O’Connor, 2017). This lack of visibility also undermines efforts to extend legal protection to escorts and the ability of enforcement officials to prosecute offenders (Scoular O’Neill, 2007).   For those women who have fallen into escort work due to social, health and addiction issues limiting the employment choices available to them, the more sympathetic application of legal sanctions in some countries is beginning to provide them with the support required (Agustin, 2009). Viewing such women as being vulnerable and exploited ensures that they are seen in a different light by state institutions, helping them to move out of escort work if their continued involvement undermines their self-worth, health and social status (Reitmeijer, 2017).   SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION   Basic economic theory dictates that women will continue to provide escort services for the foreseeable future. There is a constant (potentially expanding) demand, technology advances make it easier for consumers to express that demand clearly and for suppliers to efficiently tailor their services to the requirements of distinct customer communities (Henry, 2011; Burghart, 2017). Consequently, a dynamic and competitive market exists (and has always existed) irrespective of the behavioural and cultural norms outlined by the societies concerned.   If this proposition is accepted, then it is argued that current attitudes, reflected in the legal frameworks of many nations are discriminatory and punitive to women (Bartlett Kennedy, 2018). They limit the protection that can be offered and expose women to greater risks (including sexual health concerns). Critically, making female sex work an illegal and unregistered activity allows criminal entities to control their access to the market (O’Connor, 2017). Such control disempowers women when they should be shaping their operating environment to meet their own requirements and aspirations (Koken, 2010). Criminal exploitation and the legal frameworks that unintentionally support it also create opportunities to force women to work unwillingly as escorts (Sweeney Fitzgerald, 2017).   Technology advances are giving those women that choose to work as escorts the opportunity to exert greater control. However, this needs to be matched by a more realistic and progressive attitude within societies around issues such as regulation, health screening and support services if women escorts are to be truly protected and empowered.Page Break   REFERENCES   Agustin, L. (2009). Sex and the limits of enlightenment: the irrationality of legal regimes to control prostitution, Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 5(4), pp. 73-86.   Argento, E., Taylor, M., Jollimore, J., Taylor, C., Jennex, J., Krusi, A., Shannon, K. (2016). 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